This feature also helps ensure effective seed dispersal by birds. Prevention and Control Do not plant English ivy including invasive cultivars. Individual vines can be pulled by hand when soil is moist. Vines covering the ground can be uprooted and gathered using a heavy-duty rake, then close to the ground with pruning snips, Swedish brush axe or other cutting tool.
Gathered vines can be piled up and allowed to desiccate and rot which will occur quickly, in a matter of days. If needed, material can be bagged and disposed of in normal trash. Vines climbing up trees can be cut a few feet from the ground, for convenience, to kill upper portions and then apply systemic herbicide to lower cut portions see Control Options.
One homemade remedy for aphids is to spray the foliage with a mixture of dish soap and water. Diseases that affect ivy include bacterial leaf spot Xanthomonas and Rhizoctonia root rot. Leaf spot appears as black or dark brown spotting on the plant foliage. Unfortunately, the best remedy is to remove the affected plants. Help protect any remaining plants by spraying them with a to-1 mixture of water to vinegar.
Rhizoctonia root rot is typically caused by warm and humid weather and can be fatal to affected plants. Again, removal is the best remedy. Unaffected remaining plants can be treated with fungicide for protection. Outdoors, English ivy needs little to no care for it to thrive. Indoors, you'll need to pay a bit more attention to the plant. Since English ivy is aggressive, it can grow rapidly. It establishes quickly outdoors within months.
English ivy grows slower indoors and can take at least a year to establish itself before it has a growth spurt. English ivy can be grown indoors, where it thrives with relatively cool nights and frequent misting to maintain humidity. However, it is generally considered to be a finicky houseplant, despite its being a common offering at garden centers. English ivy. Journal of Architectural Conservation , 17, 2, , , doi Actively scan device characteristics for identification.
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Measure content performance. Develop and improve products. List of Partners vendors. In This Article Expand. Common Pests and Diseases. Warning English ivy is considered invasive in many areas, including the Pacific Northwest, California, several Southeast states, and parts of the Midwest.
Is English ivy easy to care for? How fast does English ivy grow? In another study in California, one English ivy plant survived 37 days of flooding at water up to 0. In Washington, DC, "excessive" moisture in the root zone did not appear to limit the spread of English ivy in flat portions of a floodplain [ ], but on another site in Washington, DC, English ivy's growth in the moist floodplain was slower than on upland sites [ ]. Little has been reported on English ivy's tolerance to drought in North American populations, but in Arizona, English ivy was recommended for landscaping based on its low evapotranspiration rate Pittenger , cited in [ 39 ].
A literature review from the United Kingdom states that English ivy is tolerant of all but the most water-logged or very dry soils and is favored by moist soils ranging from fairly dry to slightly damp [ 52 , 97 ], although short periods of flooding may favor English ivy germination. Because the relative growth rate for potted English ivy seedlings was not significantly reduced when water was limited, researchers concluded that English ivy was tolerant of drought.
Others have described English ivy as a xerophyte Mittmeyer cited in [ ]. English ivy persists through months of drought in the understories of deeply shaded evergreen forest in the Mediterranean Basin [ , ]. Researchers speculated that English ivy may be favored in the Mediterranean Basin over other woodland species if climates become drier [ ].
English ivy may not be as drought tolerant in all parts of the Mediterranean, and summer drought may influence its distribution in that region of the world Huntley and Birks cited in [ 97 ]. Substrate: English ivy occurs on a variety of soil types and textures in North America [ , ] and Europe [ , , , ]. In the Willamette Valley in Oregon, English ivy occurred in a conifer-deciduous mixed forest in silt loam [ 66 ].
In the United Kingdom, it may be abundant on heavy clay soils in low-lying areas [ ]. In France, English ivy grows best in sandy soils Beekman cited in [ ]. In Spain, English ivy seedlings grew on 2 sites in mixed sand, clay, and silt. In England [ 38 ] and the Czech Republic [ 63 ], English ivy occurs on limestone and in England [ ] and France [ ], it occurs on calcareous soil. One report indicates that English ivy grows well in both acid and basic soils in North America [ ].
A Plant Conservation Alliance [ ] fact sheet suggests it prefers slightly acid soil pH 6. A publication recommending species for highway planting in Nevada suggests that English ivy tolerates alkaline and saline soils [ ]. In the United Kingdom, English ivy is tolerant of all but extremely acid soil, seldom occurring at pH below 4. In southern England, English ivy occurred on a site with pH of 5. English ivy's photosynthetic capacity adjusts for variable light levels; to what degree may be determined by the life phase juvenile or adult of the plant [ 10 , 62 , ].
In general, adult leaves have a greater photosynthetic capacity than juvenile leaves, even on the same plant [ 62 , 97 ]. Under experimental conditions, juvenile English ivy's capacity to accumulate light was not as well developed as its adult phase.
Juvenile leaves, however, tolerated light and were not damaged by increased light [ 62 ]. English Ivy may respond quickly to changes in light level by temporarily increasing or decreasing photosynthetic rates.
English ivy growing in the shade may undergo brief periods of photoinhibition in the winter when leaves of deciduous trees are shed. For English ivy growing in constant light, photoinhibition may be facilitated by low temperatures [ ].
Grime [ 51 ] speculated that for juvenile English ivy growing in the shade, carbohydrate availability may depend more on energy conservation than accumulation efficiency. In some locations, English ivy may reach its greatest abundance in shade. In France, English ivy reached its highest frequency in a floodplain forest on "dark" plots with less than 2.
Information pertaining to English ivy's successional role in its North American range is limited. English ivy frequency generally increased with increased tree canopy cover [ 50 ]. In Washington, DC, English ivy occurred in a deciduous forest that had not been logged for years [ 43 ]. In a secondary piedmont forest in Georgia, English ivy persisted for at least 30 years Carter personal communication cited in [ 11 ].
In another secondary piedmont forest in Washington, DC, English ivy displaced the groundlayer vegetation, previously dominated by Virginia springbeauty Claytonia virginica , within 10 years of its establishment [ ]. Several studies and publications from Europe describe English ivy's successional role in parts of its native range [ 38 , 56 , 76 , , , ]. One long-term study from the United Kingdom indicates that English ivy's successional role may be highly variable.
Researchers observed successional changes over years in 2 secondary woodlands where English ivy occurred. The woodlands established on previously cultivated land that had been abandoned for about 20 years. Site 1 consisted of woodland and meadow plant communities and was first surveyed in English ivy was first observed in the woodland community on Site 1 in Over the next 53 years English ivy continued to spread, and by it formed a "dense carpet" in the woodland. In the meadow portion of Site 1, English ivy established in but was absent by While it was present during the and surveys, it was once again absent from the meadow in On Site 2, which was primarily a grassland with a few woody species, English ivy was not observed there until , approximately 60 years after surveying began.
While it persisted on Site 2 throughout the remainder of the study , it did not dominate [ 56 ]. Other studies from Europe indicate that English ivy occurs in early to midsuccession; however, its abundance at any given stage may vary [ 38 , 76 , , , ]. In England, English ivy is typically uncommon in woods except around edges.
It establishes during the early stages of succession and may persist for centuries [ 38 , ]. In a previously cultivated hay meadow in England that had been abandoned for 20 to 30 years, English ivy established during the "building phase" average plant age years of plant community development [ 76 ]. In the Chiltern Hills in England, English ivy occurs in various stages of succession, but it is more frequent in early stages of oak woodland succession and in developing woodland [ ].
In the United Kingdom, English ivy established in a field about 15 years after cultivation ceased and dominated the ground flora of a secondary woodland within 50 years [ 56 ]. Because English ivy seedlings establish and grow in both sun and shade see Shade tolerance , it seems able to establish during early to midstages of succession. Immediate fire effect on plant : As of this writing , information pertaining to the immediate fire effects on English ivy was limited. One literature review indicated English ivy may have low tolerance to fire [ 97 ].
Based on its ability to sprout when cut [ 25 , ], English ivy may sprout from fire-damaged stumps; however, its root system may be too shallow to survive surface fire see Botanical Description. Because English ivy seed is short-lived see Seed banking , there may be little opportunity for postfire germination from the seed bank.
Researchers in Spain found no evidence of rapid postfire establishment of English ivy from the seed bank [ ].
Because English ivy sprouts when cut and roots from stem fragments see Vegetative regeneration , it may do so if aboveground vines are damaged or killed by fire. English ivy does not form a persistent seed bank see Seed banking. Researchers in Spain studied the postfire recruitment of several woody species from the soil seed bank. Based on English ivy's postfire germination rate and its response to experimental smoke and heat treatments, researchers inferred that English ivy seed is not protected from the heat of fire e.
Conversely, one invasive species publication indicated that English ivy has a hard seedcoat [ ] but provided no evidence in support of this claim. Inferences based on English ivy's morphology and regeneration suggest some ways in which fire could favor its spread. There is potential for English ivy to establish after fire from off-site seed if there are populations of fruiting English ivy nearby. English ivy seed may be dispersed to burned sites by birds; however, the farther away the source the less likely dispersal is to occur, especially if the source is greater than 3, feet 1, m away see Seed dispersal.
A literature review from Great Britain indicated that English ivy seedlings establish on disturbed or open sites [ 97 ], suggesting that fire could create conditions favorable for its establishment. However, it may not establish well on sites that experience frequent fire see Plant response to fire and Fire regimes. English ivy seedlings grow more rapidly on open sites than in shade see Shade tolerance , suggesting that canopy openings resulting from fire could facilitate rapid growth of English ivy seedlings if they establish on burned sites.
Plant response to fire: Based on its abilities to regenerate vegetatively, adjust to variable light levels, establish on open disturbed sites, and disperse seed over a large area, English ivy may respond favorably to fire.
However, the limited available evidence suggests otherwise. One paleoecological study suggests English ivy may not be favored by fire. Researchers in Switzerland reconstructed historic fire records based on a charcoal and pollen analysis of 2 lakes.
In southern Switzerland, researchers studied historic fire records to evaluate the effects of increasing fire frequency on vegetation. English ivy's frequency generally increased with increasing time since the last fire [ 28 ], suggesting that fire exclusion may favor its spread.
Planting English ivy has been recommended to reduce fire risk in seasonally dry areas such as in Utah [ 80, 97 ], and in chaparral-urban interfaces in California [ ]. While dense populations of English ivy clearly affect the structure of surface and crown fuels see Stand structure , their impact on fire behavior has not been documented. Researchers in the northeastern United States speculated that English ivy may contribute to ladder fuels [ 29 ].
A state forester in Delaware also suggested English ivy contributes to ladder fuels and considered it a serious fire hazard near urban communities [ ]. Conversely, an ecologist in Portland, Oregon, speculated that English ivy does not contribute to ladder fuels because of its high moisture content. One researcher in that area attempted to burn English ivy that was growing on cliffs with various grasses.
The grasses burned but the English ivy did not, presumably because it was "too green" personal communication [ 40 ]. It has been speculated that English ivy may increase fuel loading and continuity by growing up and over supporting vines, shrubs, and trees and by killing the vegetation beneath it [ 29 ].
Fire regimes: In its nonnative range in North America, English ivy occurs in plant communities with variable fire regimes, but at the time of this writing , no information was available on how it responds to or influences fire regimes in these communities. Land managers in the Pacific Northwest speculated that English ivy may influence riparian fire regimes; however, the magnitude and direction of its effects on fuel characteristics and fire regimes is unknown.
In moist forests where English ivy occurs, extreme fire weather may be a more important driving force of fire intensity and severity than fuel characteristics [ 1 ]; therefore, even if English ivy causes marked changes in fuel characteristics, it may have little or no influence on local fire regimes [ 4 ]. Studies from Europe indicate that English ivy occurs in communities with variable fire frequency.
On the Iberian Peninsula in Spain, English ivy is associated with plant communities occurring in warm, dry Mediterranean climates that are subject to high fire frequency and montane vegetation in subhumid climates where fires are rare [ ].
In southern Switzerland, English ivy occurred in forest types that had mean fire-return intervals ranging from 7 to more than years, but its frequency was generally lower in areas with greater fire frequency see Plant response to fire.
See the Fire Regime Table for further information on fire regimes of vegetation communities in which English ivy may occur. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
Use of prescribed fire as a control agent: As of this writing , no information was available on the use of prescribed fire to control English ivy. Several invasive species publications indicated that repeat burning with a blowtorch at regular intervals has had some success in controlling English ivy; however, no examples using this method were described [ 25 , , ]. Although blowtorching may not directly kill English ivy, it may deplete its energy reserves by causing it to continually sprout, which may eventually kill it [ ].
Reichard [ ] cautioned that this approach requires considerable care. This approach also seems infeasible for large populations of English ivy. In various parts of its European range, English ivy fruit is eaten by numerous native birds including blackcap, European robin, thrushes, and European starling [ 14 , ].
Wood pigeons are the only know predator of English ivy seed [ ]. English ivy foliage is subject to extremely low rates of herbivory in Great Britain [ 52 ]. In Denmark, farm animals including cattle, domestic sheep, geese, and peafowl eat the juvenile form of English ivy [ 14 ].
If ingested, English ivy leaves and berries may cause gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, hyperactivity, breathing difficulty, coma, fever, dilated pupils, muscular weakness, and lack of coordination [ ]. English ivy contains allergens that may affect humans [ 70 ]. In Britain, English ivy has one of the most nutritious fruits available to birds.
Its fruit contains an especially high fat content [ ]. Cover value: In Great Britain, English ivy provides excellent cover for some early-nesting birds [ 52 ].
Historically, English ivy was used as a topical agent for its antifungal and antimicrobial properties [ 70 ]. NatureServe [ ] has given English ivy a ranking of medium for its ecological impacts; its impacts to community structure are of greatest concern.
The Plant Conservation Alliance [ ] considers English ivy a "vigorous" vine that may impact all strata of a forest. In locations where it is most invasive, English ivy may form near monocultures in the understory [ , ] and suppress growth of ground flora [ 4 , 18 , 24 , 26 , , , ]. On Potomac Island in Washington, DC, English ivy suppressed herbs and may have suppressed woody species on upland sites. Because upland sites are not subject to flooding, Thomas [ ] speculated that English ivy's impacts may be greater on upland than riparian sites.
Thomas further speculated that English ivy's ability to photosynthesize year-round may improve its capacity to suppress the growth of other plants that photosynthesize seasonally [ ]. As it spreads, English ivy may eventually displace [ ] or inhibit the regeneration of native species [ , ]. Increased shade produced by English ivy may make it difficult for native species to establish in the understory [ 26 ].
Because English ivy displaces native plants, wildlife that utilize native plants for forage or cover may also be impacted. Trees hosting English ivy may be susceptible to windfall during storms [ 97 , , , , ] especially if they are weak [ 97 ] or when they are supporting several English ivy stems [ ].
Reichard [ ] speculated that the additional weight of water or ice on the evergreen leaves of English ivy may increase storm damage to trees. Invasive plant publications suggested that English ivy decreases "vigor" in host trees [ 99 , ], and a study from Oklahoma suggests that English ivy may inhibit development of top and root mass of host trees, particularly maples [ ]. Anecdotal information suggests that as English ivy climbs, it covers and kills supporting tree branches by blocking sunlight.
The host tree may eventually die from steady weakening [ , ]. American elm trees may be particularly susceptible to weakening by English ivy. Researchers speculate that only the most "aggressive species" were able to coexist with English ivy and that English ivy's presence may promote invasion by other nonnative species because it spreads fast and displaces most native species [ ].
Several other ecological impacts of English ivy invasion have been described in the literature, although most have not been well documented.
One report from the Pacific Northwest suggested that English ivy may decrease water quality and increase erosion. Researchers have identified English ivy as a host for bacterial leaf scorch Xylella fastidiosa , a plant pathogen that harms native trees including elms, oaks, and maples [ 95 ]. There is some concern that leaf litter from English ivy increases soil nitrogen, which may negatively impact native plant species that grow best in low nutrient conditions Tremolieres and others cited in [ ].
Based on stream surveys in California, North Dakota, and South Dakota, microinvertebrate frequency was reduced on sites where English ivy occurred in the riparian vegetation compared to sites where it did not occur; however, the difference was not significant [ ]. Invasion by English ivy may have societal impacts as well. Trees susceptible to windfall may create a hazard if near roads, walkways, homes, or other developed areas [ ]. Loss of shade trees, increased erosion, decreased water quality, and a loss of forest production due to the invasion of English ivy may be costly for public agencies as well as private land owners [ ].
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